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Total Length: 19 to 22 cm; Wingspan: 45 to 48 cm (Ref. 8812). Continental shelf; <200 km (Ref. 81748). Found over sea and along shores (Ref. 83946). Pattering and dipping displays (Ref. 81748). One of the largest global population of seabirds at >10 million individuals. Goes on long transequatorial migrations, from high northern or southern latitudes across to high opposite latitudes. Found over a wide variety of habitat. Obtain food at surface of sea; an offshore feeder. Copulation occurring ashore and ovum fertilization happens at sea; delayed fertilization possible because of sperm-storage glands; allows birds to feed at sea while egg forms and prior to the long period of fasting during egg incubation. Stomach oils an energy source to the incubating bird, a species with one of the highest daily rates of mass loss while incubating its eggs. Hatchling size = 6.3 g. Chicks exhibit nestling obesity. Chicks feed sporadically in burrows; conserves water; with urine osmolality of 735 mmol/kg. Effect of oil pollution is slowed weight gain and higher chick mortality. Predation pressure from Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) and Great Black-backed Gulls (Larus marinus) as a consequence of closure of eastern Canadian ground-fishery (1992-1999) which eliminated discard and offal food source for these predatory birds (Ref. 87784).
Life cycle and mating behavior Maturity | Reproduction | Spawning | Eggs | Fecundity | Larvae
Birds breed when they reach 3 years of age; although some adults do not return in the breeding colony annually, i.e., those who were able to breed successfully in the previous year do not breed the following year.